BANK OF JAPAN: CENTRAL BANK-ISSUED DIGITAL CURRENCIES ARE NOT AN EFFECTIVE ECONOMIC TOOL

The prospect of a central bank digital currency (CBDC) has sparked intense debate worldwide, with central banks exploring the potential benefits and risks of introducing a digital form of their national currency.While some nations are actively pursuing CBDC implementation, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) remains cautious, particularly regarding its effectiveness as an economic tool.Deputy Governor Masayoshi Amamiya has repeatedly voiced skepticism about the relevance of CBDCs in the existing monetary system. Central bank digital currencies are digital versions of a country s physical currency for example, a digital dollar, euro, pound or yuan. This means 10 of a UK digital currency would always be worth the same as a 10 note, explains the Bank of England in the United Kingdom.He argues that such digital currencies are unlikely to significantly improve monetary policy, casting doubt on their ability to stimulate economic growth or address inflation effectively.This stance is not to say that the BOJ is ignoring the digital transformation occurring globally; rather, they prioritize a measured approach, focusing on enhancing the existing payment infrastructure and exploring alternative digital solutions through collaboration with the private sector. Differently concerning other cryptocurrencies that a Central Bank does not manage, user anonymity could be an issue, and some countries (like the European Union) are evaluating new options in which payments do not disclose information about the payer and the receiver only if it is below a maximum threshold (European Central Bank, 2025).This article delves into the Bank of Japan's perspective on CBDCs, examining the reasoning behind their reservations and exploring the alternative strategies they are pursuing to adapt to an increasingly cashless society.Understanding the BOJ's position provides valuable insight into the complex considerations surrounding the future of money and the role of central banks in the digital age.

The Bank of Japan's Cautious Stance on CBDCs

The Bank of Japan, unlike some of its counterparts globally, has not yet committed to issuing a central bank digital currency. Central Bank Digital Currencies: Policy Issues The recent proliferation of private digital currencies or cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin, has led to questions of whether the Federal Reserve (Fed) should create a central bank digital currency (CBDC) a digital dollar that would share some of the features of these private digital currencies.This cautiousness stems from several concerns regarding the potential impact of a CBDC on the Japanese economy and its existing financial infrastructure. Central Bank Digital Currency Experiments: Progress on the Pilot Program (April 2025) [PDF 1,273KB] : Central Bank Digital Currency Experiments: Results and Findings from Proof of Concept Phase 2 [PDF 1,646KB] Feb. 17, 2025: Commencement of Central Bank Digital Currency Experiments: Pilot Program [PDF 534KB]Deputy Governor Amamiya, in numerous public statements, has articulated the BOJ's reservations, emphasizing that CBDCs are not perceived as a necessary or effective tool for enhancing monetary policy.

Doubts about Monetary Policy Effectiveness

One of the primary reasons for the BOJ's skepticism is the belief that a CBDC is unlikely to significantly improve the effectiveness of monetary policy. An alternative scheme would be for private enterprises to issue private digital money backed by central bank liability (e.g, central bank deposits) and based on the credibility of a central bank. Such digital money is not D as it is not issued by a central bank. However, inThe current tools available to the BOJ, such as interest rate adjustments and quantitative easing, are considered sufficient for managing inflation and stimulating economic growth. Large economies have not made a decision to issue CBDCs so far, and their researches and studies are underway. In Japan, the Bank of Japan announced The Bank of Japan s Approach to Central Bank Digital Currency in October 2025.Introducing a CBDC, in their view, would not fundamentally alter the transmission mechanisms of monetary policy or provide additional leverage in influencing economic activity.

Furthermore, the BOJ worries about the potential for unintended consequences. While the Bank of Japan currently has no plan to issue CBDC, from the viewpoint of ensuring the stability and efficiency of the overall payment and settlement systems, the Bank considers it important to prepare thoroughly to respond to changes in circumstances in an appropriate manner.For instance, a widely adopted CBDC could potentially disintermediate commercial banks, leading to a reduction in lending activity and potentially destabilizing the financial system.This is because individuals might choose to hold their funds directly with the central bank in the form of CBDC, rather than depositing them in commercial banks.

Focus on Existing Payment Infrastructure

Instead of prioritizing CBDC development, the Bank of Japan is focusing on improving the existing payment and settlement infrastructure. Digital Currency and the Future of Money Issuance . Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) are a digital form of a country s fiat currency. They are issued and regulated by a nation s central bank. Unlike cryptocurrencies, CBDCs are not decentralized.They recognize the importance of adapting to the increasingly cashless society, but believe that this can be achieved more effectively through collaboration with the private sector and by enhancing the efficiency and stability of existing payment systems.This approach allows for innovation and competition in the payments landscape without the need for a potentially disruptive CBDC.

Exploring Alternatives: Private Digital Money and Enhanced Payment Systems

The Bank of Japan's approach to digital payments emphasizes collaboration with the private sector.They envision a future where private enterprises issue digital money backed by central bank liabilities, leveraging the credibility and stability of the central bank while fostering innovation and competition.This model allows for a more decentralized and market-driven approach to digital payments, avoiding the potential risks associated with a central bank-controlled CBDC.

Collaboration with the Private Sector

The BOJ has established a forum to engage with the private sector on the topic of digital currencies.This forum brings together various stakeholders, including financial institutions, technology companies, and payment service providers, to discuss the challenges and opportunities of digital payments.By fostering open dialogue and collaboration, the BOJ aims to create a regulatory environment that encourages innovation while ensuring the safety and stability of the financial system.

Improving Payment and Settlement Systems

The Bank of Japan is actively working to improve the efficiency and stability of existing payment and settlement systems. Japan, like many other countries around the world, is nonetheless interested in the possibility of setting up a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC). More than a hundred central banks worldwide are investigating the feasibility of CBDCs and some countries, like Nigeria and the Bahamas, have actually implemented their currencies.This includes efforts to modernize payment infrastructure, reduce transaction costs, and enhance cybersecurity.By focusing on these areas, the BOJ aims to create a more seamless and reliable payment experience for consumers and businesses, regardless of whether they choose to use cash, credit cards, or other forms of digital payments.

One specific area of focus is the promotion of faster and more secure payment methods. The deputy governor of the Bank of Japan Masayoshi Amamiya has reiterated his skepticism about any relevance that may abound in the use of central-bank-issued digital currencies (CBDC) in the existing monetary system.The BOJ is working with the private sector to develop and implement new payment technologies, such as instant payment systems and mobile payment solutions.These technologies allow for real-time payments and transfers, making it easier and more convenient for people to conduct transactions.

Understanding Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs)

To fully understand the Bank of Japan's perspective, it's important to define what a Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) actually is. TOKYO :Japan currently has no plan to issue a central bank digital currency (CBDC) but must continue innovating its payment and settlement system in an increasingly cash-less society, a seniorSimply put, a CBDC is a digital form of a country's fiat currency, issued and regulated by the central bank.It's essentially a digital version of physical cash, but with some key differences.

Key Characteristics of CBDCs

• Centralized Control: Unlike cryptocurrencies, which are decentralized and operate on blockchain technology, CBDCs are centrally controlled by the issuing central bank.
• Fiat Currency Equivalent: A CBDC represents a direct claim on the central bank and is equivalent in value to the country's existing physical currency.For example, one digital yen would be worth the same as one physical yen.
• Potential for Programmability: CBDCs offer the potential for programmability, meaning that certain conditions can be attached to their use.This could enable targeted stimulus payments or other policy interventions.
• Reduced Transaction Costs: CBDCs could potentially reduce transaction costs by eliminating the need for intermediaries, such as commercial banks and payment processors.
• Increased Financial Inclusion: CBDCs could improve financial inclusion by providing access to digital payments for individuals who are currently unbanked or underbanked.

Retail vs. Novem. Central Bank Digital Currency: A Literature Review. Francesca Carapella and Jean Flemming. Technological advances in recent years have led to a growing number of fast, electronic means of payment available to consumers for everyday transactions, raising questions for policymakers about the role of the public sector in providing a digital payment instrument for the modernWholesale CBDCs

It's also important to distinguish between two main types of CBDCs:

• Retail CBDCs: These are digital currencies that are available to the general public and can be used for everyday transactions.
• Wholesale CBDCs: These are digital currencies that are used by financial institutions for interbank payments and settlements.

The Debate Surrounding CBDCs: Pros and Cons

The potential benefits and risks of CBDCs have been widely debated among economists, policymakers, and financial experts. Bank of Japan has convened the first meeting of a new forum through which it is engaging with the private sector on the topic of central bank digital currency (CBDC) a potential digital yen. Japan s central bank s CBDC Forum held its first meeting on 20 July about three months after the start of retail CBDC experiments throughWhile some argue that CBDCs could revolutionize the financial system, others express concerns about their potential impact on privacy, financial stability, and monetary policy.

Potential Benefits of CBDCs

• Improved Payment Efficiency: CBDCs could streamline payment processes, reduce transaction costs, and enable faster and more secure payments.
• Enhanced Financial Inclusion: CBDCs could provide access to digital payments for individuals who are currently excluded from the formal financial system.
• Combating Illicit Activities: CBDCs could make it easier to track and trace financial transactions, potentially reducing money laundering and other illicit activities.However, this comes at the cost of user anonymity.
• Improved Monetary Policy Implementation: Some argue that CBDCs could give central banks more direct control over monetary policy by enabling targeted stimulus payments and negative interest rates.

Potential Risks and Concerns of CBDCs

• Privacy Concerns: The central bank would have access to detailed information about all CBDC transactions, raising concerns about government surveillance and potential misuse of data.
• Financial Stability Risks: A widely adopted CBDC could potentially disintermediate commercial banks, leading to a reduction in lending activity and potentially destabilizing the financial system.
• Cybersecurity Risks: CBDCs would be vulnerable to cyberattacks and hacking attempts, potentially leading to loss of funds and disruption of the payment system.
• Monetary Policy Challenges: Implementing negative interest rates on CBDCs could be politically unpopular and could potentially lead to capital flight.
• Operational Risks: Developing and maintaining a CBDC system would be a complex and expensive undertaking, requiring significant technical expertise and resources.

The Bank of Japan's CBDC Experiments and Pilot Programs

Despite its cautious stance, the Bank of Japan has been actively exploring the technological feasibility of CBDCs through a series of experiments and pilot programs.These initiatives are aimed at understanding the technical challenges and potential benefits of CBDCs without committing to a full-scale implementation.

Proof-of-Concept Research

The BOJ has completed its two-year proof-of-concept research for its prospective CBDC.This research focused on exploring the technical feasibility of issuing, distributing, and managing a CBDC.The results of this research have provided valuable insights into the technological challenges and potential solutions associated with CBDC development.

Pilot Program Launch

Building on the findings of its proof-of-concept research, the Bank of Japan has launched a pilot program to further explore the practical aspects of CBDC implementation. A group of seven central banks (Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the Bank of Japan, the European Central Bank, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Sveriges Riksbank and the Swiss National Bank) together with the Bank for International Settlements, have been working together to explore selected aspects of central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) for the public ( generalThis pilot program involves collaborating with private companies to test various CBDC functionalities, such as payments, transfers, and settlements.The goal of the pilot program is to identify potential issues and refine the design of a CBDC system before making any decisions about full-scale implementation.

The launch of this pilot program demonstrates that, while skeptical of immediate economic benefits, the BOJ is still actively investigating CBDCs to remain prepared for potential future developments.This proactive approach allows them to assess the technology and its potential impact without prematurely committing to a specific course of action.

International Perspectives on CBDCs

The Bank of Japan's cautious approach to CBDCs contrasts with the strategies of some other central banks around the world.While many central banks are exploring CBDCs, some have already launched or are planning to launch their own digital currencies.

Countries Implementing CBDCs

Several countries, particularly smaller economies, have already launched CBDCs, including:

• The Bahamas: Launched the Sand Dollar, the world's first CBDC, in 2020.
• Nigeria: Launched the eNaira in 2021.

These countries have implemented CBDCs to address specific challenges, such as improving financial inclusion, reducing transaction costs, and promoting innovation in the payment system.

Major Economies Exploring CBDCs

Many major economies, including the United States, the European Union, and the United Kingdom, are actively researching and experimenting with CBDCs. 1041 (2025) (discussing the various forms a sovereign digital currency could take); Jack Solowey, Digital Delegation Doctrine: Central Bank Digital Currencies and the Future of the Separation of Powers, 12 N.Y.U. J. L. Liberty 874, 876 (2025) ( [A] public digital currency would provide an opportunity to allay agencyHowever, none of these economies have yet made a decision to issue a CBDC.

The Federal Reserve in the United States has been exploring the potential benefits and risks of a digital dollar, while the European Central Bank is investigating the possibility of a digital euro. To meet this need, the central bank should cooperate with the private sector and continue to improve the payment and settlement infrastructures it offers. In this regard, the question as to whether the central bank should issue digital currency (CBDC) or not has become an important issue.The Bank of England is also researching CBDCs, with a focus on their potential impact on monetary policy and financial stability.

The Future of Digital Payments in Japan

Despite its reservations about CBDCs, the Bank of Japan recognizes the importance of adapting to the increasingly cashless society.The BOJ is committed to fostering innovation in the payment system and ensuring that Japan remains at the forefront of digital payments.The focus remains on the evolution of existing systems and private sector collaboration.

Continued Innovation in Payment Technologies

The BOJ is actively promoting the development and adoption of new payment technologies, such as mobile payments, contactless payments, and instant payments.These technologies offer consumers and businesses a wider range of payment options and can help to improve the efficiency and convenience of transactions.

Collaboration with Fintech Companies

The Bank of Japan is working closely with fintech companies to foster innovation in the payment system. The nbsp;Bank of Japan has completed its two-year proof-of-concept research for its prospective central bank digital currency (CBDC) nbsp;and has now launched a pilot program. This makes Japan one of the largest economies in the world to advance to the pilot stage of CBDC development. nbsp;Financial experts predict nbsp;that $5 trillion in CBDCs will be circulating through the hands of up to 4Fintech companies are developing new payment solutions that can address specific needs and challenges in the Japanese market.By collaborating with these companies, the BOJ can help to accelerate the adoption of new payment technologies and create a more vibrant and competitive payment landscape.

Conclusion: A Pragmatic Approach to Digital Currencies

The Bank of Japan's stance on central bank-issued digital currencies is characterized by a pragmatic and cautious approach. Retail CBDC. Retail CBDC is a digital version of physical cash that is issued by the central bank and is available to the public. It can be used for day-to-day transactions, such as buying goods and services, and can be held in digital wallets or other digital payment apps.While recognizing the potential benefits of CBDCs, the BOJ remains skeptical about their effectiveness as an economic tool, particularly in the context of Japan's existing monetary policy framework. This paper studies the macroeconomic consequences of introducing a retail central bank digital currency (CBDC), in which the central bank grants universal, electronic, 24x7, national-currency-denominated and interest-bearing access to its balance sheet. CBDC, which could be issued through public spending, public lending or the purchase ofInstead, the BOJ prioritizes enhancing the existing payment infrastructure, collaborating with the private sector, and exploring alternative digital solutions.This approach reflects a commitment to fostering innovation while ensuring the stability and efficiency of the financial system. The term Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) usually means digitalized instruments for payments and settlements issued by central banks as their liabilities (central bank money) 1. There exist two types of central bank money (base money) issued by the central bank as their liabilities, which are (a) banknotes and (b) central bankThe BOJ's pilot programs and ongoing research demonstrate a commitment to preparedness, ensuring they are well-positioned to adapt to future developments in the digital currency landscape.Whether this approach proves successful remains to be seen, but it underscores the complex considerations surrounding the future of money and the diverse strategies central banks are adopting to navigate the digital age.As the world of digital finance continues to evolve, the Bank of Japan's approach offers a valuable perspective on the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead, emphasizing the need for careful consideration and a data-driven approach to central bank digital currency implementation.